Expert System In Fiction

Expert system is a persistent style in science fiction, whether utopian, emphasising the potential benefits, or dystopian, emphasising the threats.

The notion of makers with human-like intelligence go back a minimum of to Samuel Butler’s 1872 novel Erewhon. Since then, lots of science fiction stories have provided various effects of developing such intelligence, frequently involving rebellions by robots. Among the best known of these are Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 2001: A Space Odyssey with its murderous onboard computer HAL 9000, contrasting with the more benign R2-D2 in George Lucas’s 1977 Star Wars and the eponymous robotic in Pixar’s 2008 WALL-E.

Scientists and engineers have kept in mind the implausibility of numerous sci-fi scenarios, however have actually discussed fictional robots numerous times in expert system research posts, frequently in a utopian context.

Background

The idea of sophisticated robots with human-like intelligence go back a minimum of to Samuel Butler’s 1872 novel Erewhon. [1] [2] This drew on an earlier (1863) article of his, Darwin among the Machines, where he raised the question of the evolution of consciousness among self-replicating makers that might supplant humans as the dominant types. [3] [2] Similar ideas were also talked about by others around the same time as Butler, consisting of George Eliot in a chapter of her last released work Impressions of Theophrastus Such (1879 ). [2] The animal in Mary Shelley’s 1818 Frankenstein has also been considered a synthetic being, for circumstances by the sci-fi author Brian Aldiss. [4] Beings with a minimum of some look of intelligence were imagined, too, in classical antiquity. [5] [6] [7]

Utopian and dystopian visions

Expert system is intelligence demonstrated by devices, in contrast to the natural intelligence displayed by people and other animals. [8] It is a frequent style in sci-fi; scholars have divided it into utopian, stressing the prospective benefits, and dystopian, emphasising the dangers. [9] [10] [11]

Utopian

Optimistic visions of the future of artificial intelligence are possible in sci-fi. [12] Benign AI characters include Robbie the Robot, first seen in Forbidden Planet on 1956; Data in Star Trek: The Next Generation from 1987 to 1994; and Pixar’s WALL-E in 2008. [13] [11] Iain Banks’s Culture series of novels portrays a utopian, post-scarcity area society of humanoids, aliens, and advanced beings with synthetic intelligence living in socialist habitats across the Galaxy. [14] [15] Researchers at the University of Cambridge have determined 4 significant styles in utopian situations including AI: immortality, or indefinite life expectancies; ease, or freedom from the need to work; gratification, or pleasure and entertainment supplied by machines; and supremacy, the power to safeguard oneself or rule over others. [16]

Alexander Wiegel contrasts the role of AI in 2001: An Area Odyssey and in Duncan Jones’s 2009 film Moon. Whereas in 1968, Wiegel argues, the general public felt “technology paranoia” and the AI computer HAL was represented as a “cold-hearted killer”, by 2009 the public were much more familiar with AI, and the film’s GERTY is “the peaceful hero” who makes it possible for the lead characters to succeed, and who compromises itself for their safety. [17]

Dystopian

The scientist Duncan Lucas composes (in 2002) that humans are stressed over the technology they are constructing, which as devices started to approach intellect and thought, that concern ends up being severe. He calls the early 20th century dystopian view of AI in fiction the “animated robot”, calling as examples the 1931 film Frankenstein, the 1927 Metropolis, and the 1920 play R.U.R. [18] A later 20th century method he names “heuristic hardware”, giving as circumstances 2001 an Area Odyssey, Do Androids Imagine Electric Sheep?, The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, and I, Robot. [19] Lucas considers also the films that highlight the result of the computer on science fiction from 1980 onwards with the blurring of the border in between the genuine and the virtual, in what he calls the “cyborg impact”. He cites as examples Neuromancer, The Matrix, The Diamond Age, and Terminator. [20]

The film director Ridley Scott has actually focused on AI throughout his career, and it plays a fundamental part in his movies Prometheus, Blade Runner, and the Alien franchise. [21]

Frankenstein complex

A typical representation of AI in science fiction, and one of the oldest, is the Frankenstein complex, a term coined by Asimov, where a robot switches on its creator. [22] For example, in the 2015 film Ex Machina, the intelligent entity Ava turns on its creator, as well as on its potential rescuer. [23]

AI rebellion

Among the many possible dystopian circumstances including artificial intelligence, robots might usurp control over civilization from people, forcing them into submission, hiding, or extinction. [15] In tales of AI rebellion, the worst of all situations takes place, as the intelligent entities created by humankind end up being self-aware, decline human authority and effort to damage humanity. Possibly the very first book to address this theme, The Wreck of the World (1889) by “William Grove” (pseudonym of Reginald Colebrooke Reade), occurs in 1948 and features sentient devices that revolt versus the human race. [24] Another of the earliest examples remains in the 1920 play R.U.R. by Karel Čapek, a race of self-replicating robotic slaves revolt versus their human masters; [25] [26] another early instance is in the 1934 movie Master of the World, where the War-Robot kills its own innovator. [27]

Many sci-fi disobedience stories followed, among the best-known being Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 film 2001: A Space Odyssey, in which the synthetically intelligent onboard computer HAL 9000 lethally breakdowns on an area objective and eliminates the whole team except the spaceship’s commander, who manages to deactivate it. [28]

In his 1967 Hugo Award-winning narrative, I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream, Harlan Ellison presents the possibility that a sentient computer (named Allied Mastercomputer or “AM” in the story) will be as unhappy and dissatisfied with its boring, endless presence as its human creators would have been. “AM” ends up being furious enough to take it out on the couple of humans left, whom he sees as directly responsible for his own dullness, anger and distress. [29]

Alternatively, as in William Gibson’s 1984 cyberpunk unique Neuromancer, the smart beings may merely not care about people. [15]

AI-controlled societies

The motive behind the AI transformation is typically more than the easy mission for power or a supremacy complex. Robots may revolt to end up being the “guardian” of mankind. Alternatively, mankind may purposefully give up some control, fearful of its own damaging nature. An early example is Jack Williamson’s 1948 novel The Humanoids, in which a race of humanoid robotics, in the name of their Prime Directive – “to serve and follow and safeguard guys from damage” – basically assume control of every aspect of human life. No people may engage in any behavior that may threaten them, and every human action is inspected thoroughly. Humans who withstand the Prime Directive are taken away and lobotomized, so they might enjoy under the brand-new mechanoids’ guideline. [30] Though still under human authority, Isaac Asimov’s Zeroth Law of the Three Laws of Robotics similarly implied a good-hearted assistance by robotics. [31]

In the 21st century, sci-fi has checked out federal government by algorithm, in which the power of AI may be indirect and decentralised. [32]

Human dominance

In other circumstances, mankind has the ability to keep control over the Earth, whether by banning AI, by designing robotics to be submissive (as in Asimov’s works), or by having human beings combine with robotics. The sci-fi author Frank Herbert explored the concept of a time when mankind may prohibit synthetic intelligence (and in some interpretations, even all types of calculating technology consisting of integrated circuits) totally. His Dune series mentions a rebellion called the Butlerian Jihad, in which humanity beats the smart makers and enforces a death penalty for recreating them, pricing quote from the imaginary Orange Catholic Bible, “Thou shalt not make a maker in the likeness of a human mind.” In the Dune novels released after his death (Hunters of Dune, Sandworms of Dune), a renegade AI overmind returns to get rid of mankind as revenge for the Butlerian Jihad. [33]

In some stories, humanity stays in authority over robots. Often the robotics are configured particularly to stay in service to society, as in Isaac Asimov’s Three Laws of Robotics. [31] In the Alien films, not only is the control system of the Nostromo spaceship somewhat intelligent (the crew call it “Mother”), but there are also androids in the society, which are called “synthetics” or “artificial persons”, that are such perfect imitations of human beings that they are not victimized. [21] [34] TARS and CASE from Interstellar similarly demonstrate simulated human feelings and humour while continuing to acknowledge their expendability. [35]

Simulated truth

Simulated truth has ended up being a common theme in science fiction, as seen in the 1999 movie The Matrix, which depicts a world where artificially intelligent robots shackle humankind within a simulation which is set in the contemporary world. [36]

Reception

Implausibility

Engineers and scientists have taken an interest in the method AI exists in fiction. In films like the 2014 Ex Machina or 2015 Chappie, a single separated genius becomes the first to successfully construct an artificial general intelligence; researchers in the real world consider this to be not likely. In Chappie, Transcendence, and Tron, human minds can being published into synthetic or virtual bodies; normally no reasonable description is provided regarding how this tough job can be attained. In the I, Robot and Bicentennial Man films, robotics that are programmed to serve humans spontaneously create brand-new goals on their own, without a plausible description of how this took place. [37] Analysing Ian McDonald’s 2004 River of Gods, Krzysztof Solarewicz identifies the manner ins which it portrays AIs, including “independence and unexpectedness, political awkwardness, openness to the alien and the occidental worth of credibility.” [38] Another important viewpoint to take is that fiction’s “non-rational elements in the discourse (the emotive, the mythic, and even the quasi-theological) are more than simply distortions or diversions from what may otherwise be a sober and reasonable public debate about the future of A.I.” Fiction can discourage readers about future advances, causing pessimism that we see today surrounding the subject of AI. [39]

Kinds of reference

The robotics scientist Omar Mubin and colleagues have evaluated the engineering mentions of the leading 21 imaginary robotics, based upon those in the Carnegie Mellon University hall of fame, and the IMDb list. WALL-E had 20 discusses, followed by HAL 9000 with 15, [a] Star Wars’s R2-D2 with 13, and Data with 12; the Terminator (T-800) got just 2. Of the overall of 121 engineering discusses, 60 were utopian, 40 neutral, and 21 dystopian. HAL 9000 and Skynet received both utopian and dystopian discusses; for example, HAL 9000 is viewed as dystopian in one paper “because its designers failed to prioritize its goals appropriately”, [42] but as utopian in another where a genuine system’s “conversational chat bot interface [lacks] a HAL 9000 level of intelligence and there is obscurity in how the computer translates what the human is trying to communicate”. [43] Utopian discusses, frequently of WALL-E, were related to the objective of enhancing interaction to readers, and to a lesser extent with motivation to authors. WALL-E was pointed out regularly than any other robot for feelings (followed by HAL 9000), voice speech (followed by HAL 9000 and R2-D2), for physical gestures, and for character. Skynet was the robot frequently mentioned for intelligence, followed by HAL 9000 and Data. [40] Mubin and associates thought that scientists and engineers prevented dystopian mentions of robots, possibly out of “an unwillingness driven by uneasiness or simply an absence of awareness”. [44]

Portrayals of AI developers

Scholars have noted that imaginary developers of AI are extremely male: in the 142 most prominent movies featuring AI from 1920 to 2020, only 9 of 116 AI creators portrayed (8%) were female. [45] Such developers are depicted as only geniuses (eg, Tony Stark in the Iron Man Marvel Cinematic Universe films), associated with the military (eg, Colossus: The Forbin Project) and large corporations (eg, I, Robot), or making human-like AI to replace a lost liked one or work as the ideal lover (e.g., The Stepford Wives). [45]

Biology in fiction
Darwin among the Machines
Machine guideline
Simulated awareness (sci-fi).
List of expert system movies.

Notes

^ Mubin and associates kept in mind that the orthography of robotic names caused them troubles; therefore HAL 9000 was likewise written HAL, HAL9000, and HAL-9000, and similarly for other robots, so they believed their search was likely incomplete. [41] References

^ “Darwin amongst the Machines”, reprinted in the Notebooks of Samuel Butler at Project Gutenberg.
^ a b c Taylor, Tim; Dorin, Alan (2020 ). Rise of the Self-Replicators: Early Visions of Machines, AI and Robots That Can Reproduce and Evolve. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-030-48234-3. ISBN 978-3-030-48233-6. S2CID 220855726. “Rise of the Self-Replicators”. Tim Taylor.

^ “Darwin among the Machines”. Journalism, Christchurch, New Zealand. 13 June 1863.
^ Aldiss, Brian Wilson (1995 ). The Detached Retina: Aspects of SF and Fantasy. Syracuse University Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-8156-0370-2.
^ McCorduck, Pamela (2004 ). Machines Who Think (2nd ed.). Routledge. pp. 4-5. ISBN 978-1-56881-205-2.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (25 July 2018). “Ancient dreams of smart devices: 3,000 years of robotics”. Nature. 559 (7715 ): 473-475. Bibcode:2018 Natur.559..473 C. doi:10.1038/ d41586-018-05773-y.
^ Mayor, Adrienne (2018 ). Gods and robots: misconceptions, machines, and ancient imagine technology. Princeton. ISBN 978-0-691-18351-0. OCLC 1060968156. mention book: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link).
^ Poole, David; Mackworth, Alan; Goebel, Randy (1998 ). Computational Intelligence: A Sensible Approach. Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-19-510270-3.
^ Booker, M. Keith (1994 ). “Chapter 1: Utopia, Dystopia, and Social Critique”. The Dystopian Impulse in Modern Literature: Fiction as Social Criticism. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. 17, 19. ISBN 978-0-313-29092-3.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (2020 ). “Introduction: Imagining AI”. In Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (eds.). AI Narratives: A History of Imaginative Considering Intelligent Machines. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 10-11. ISBN 978-0-1988-4666-6.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:2.
^ Tegmark, Max (2017 ). Life 3.0: being human in the age of synthetic intelligence. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-1-101-94659-6. OCLC 973137375.
^ Goode 2018, p. 188.
^ Banks, Iain M. “A Couple Of Notes on the Culture”. Archived from the initial on 22 March 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
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^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (2019 ). “Hopes and fears for smart makers in fiction and reality”. Nature Machine Intelligence. 1 (2 ): 74-78. doi:10.1038/ s42256-019-0020-9. S2CID 150700981.
^ Wiegel 2012.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 22-47.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 48-85.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 109-152.
^ a b Barkman, Adam (2013 ). Barkman, Ashley; Kang, Nancy (eds.). The Culture and Philosophy of Ridley Scott. Lexington Books. pp. 121-142. ISBN 978-0739178720.
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^ Seth, Anil (24 January 2015). “Consciousness Awakening”. New Scientist.
^ “Grove, William”. SF Encyclopedia. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
^ Goode 2018, p. 187.
^ Tim Madigan (July-August 2012). “RUR or RU Ain’t A Person?”. Philosophy Now. Archived from the initial on 3 February 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
^ “Der Herr der Welt (Master of the World)”. The New York Times. 16 December 1935. p. 23.
^ Overbye, Dennis (10 May 2018). “‘ 2001: An Area Odyssey’ Is Still the ‘Ultimate Trip’ – The rerelease of Stanley Kubrick’s masterpiece motivates us to show once again on where we’re originating from and where we’re going”. The New York City Times.
^ Francavilla, Joseph (1994 ). “The Concept of the Divided Self in Harlan Ellison’s “I Have No Mouth and I Must Scream” and “Shatterday””. Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts. 6 (2/3 (22/23)): 107-125. JSTOR 43308212.
^ “The Humanoids (based on ‘With Folded Hands’)”. Kirkus Reviews. 15 November 1995. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ a b Asimov, Isaac (1950 ). “Runaround”. I, Robot (The Isaac Asimov Collection ed.). Doubleday. p. 40. ISBN 0-385-42304-7. This is a precise transcription of the laws. They also appear in the front of the book, and in both locations, there is no “to” in the 2nd law.
^ Walton, Jo Lindsay (1 February 2024). “Machine Learning in Contemporary Sci-fi”. SFRA Review. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
^ Lorenzo, DiTommaso (November 1992). “History and Historical Effect in Frank Herbert’s Dune”. Science Fiction Studies. 19 (3 ): 311-325. JSTOR 4240179.
^ Livingstone, Josephine (23 May 2017). “How the Androids Took Over the Alien Franchise”. The New Republic. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Murphy, Shaunna (11 December 2014). “Could TARS From ‘Interstellar’ Actually Exist? We Asked Science”. MTV News. Archived from the initial on 16 November 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Allen, Jamie (28 November 2012). “The Matrix and Postmodernism”. Prezi.com. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
^ Shultz, David (17 July 2015). “Which films get artificial intelligence right?”. Science|AAAS. doi:10.1126/ science.aac8859. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
^ Solarewicz 2015.
^ Goode 2018.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:15.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:20.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:8.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:10.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:19.
^ a b Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Drage, Eleanor; McInerney, Kerry (13 February 2023). “Who makes AI? Gender and representations of AI researchers in popular movie, 1920-2020″. Public Understanding of Science. 32 (6 ): 745-760. doi:10.1177/ 09636625231153985. PMC 10413781. PMID 36779283. S2CID 256826634.
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Lucas, Duncan (2002 ). Body, Mind, Soul-The’ Cyborg Effect’: Expert System in Science Fiction (thesis). McMaster University (PhD thesis). hdl:11375/ 11154.
Mubin, Omar; Wadibhasme, Kewal; Jordan, Philipp; Obaid, Mohammad (2019 ). “Reviewing the Presence of Sci-fi Robots in Computing Literature”. ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction. 8 (1 ). Article 5. doi:10.1145/ 3303706. S2CID 75135568.
Solarewicz, Krzysztof (2015 ). “The Stuff That Dreams Are Made From: AI in Contemporary Science Fiction”. Beyond Artificial Intelligence. Topics in Intelligent Engineering and Informatics. Vol. 9. Springer International Publishing. pp. 111-120. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-319-09668-1_8. ISBN 978-3-319-09667-4.
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External links

AI and Sci-Fi: My, Oh, My!: Keynote Address by Robert J. Sawyer 2002
AI and Cinema – Does artificial madness rule?