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Expert System In Fiction
Artificial intelligence is a reoccurring theme in science fiction, whether utopian, emphasising the possible benefits, or dystopian, emphasising the threats.
The notion of makers with human-like intelligence dates back a minimum of to Samuel Butler’s 1872 unique Erewhon. Ever since, lots of sci-fi stories have actually presented different results of producing such intelligence, typically involving disobediences by robotics. Among the very best understood of these are Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 2001: A Space Odyssey with its homicidal onboard computer HAL 9000, contrasting with the more benign R2-D2 in George Lucas’s 1977 Star Wars and the eponymous robot in Pixar’s 2008 WALL-E.
Scientists and engineers have noted the implausibility of many sci-fi situations, however have actually discussed fictional robots lot of times in expert system research study articles, frequently in a utopian context.
Background
The notion of innovative robots with human-like intelligence dates back a minimum of to Samuel Butler’s 1872 novel Erewhon. [1] [2] This drew on an earlier (1863) article of his, Darwin among the Machines, where he raised the question of the development of awareness amongst self-replicating devices that may supplant humans as the dominant types. [3] [2] Similar concepts were also discussed by others around the very same time as Butler, consisting of George Eliot in a chapter of her last released work Impressions of Theophrastus Such (1879 ). [2] The animal in Mary Shelley’s 1818 Frankenstein has actually also been thought about a synthetic being, for instance by the sci-fi author Brian Aldiss. [4] Beings with a minimum of some appearance of intelligence were pictured, too, in classical antiquity. [5] [6] [7]
Utopian and dystopian visions
Expert system is intelligence demonstrated by machines, in contrast to the natural intelligence shown by human beings and other animals. [8] It is a reoccurring theme in sci-fi; scholars have actually divided it into utopian, stressing the potential advantages, and dystopian, emphasising the threats. [9] [10] [11]
Utopian
Optimistic visions of the future of expert system are possible in science fiction. [12] Benign AI characters include Robbie the Robot, initially seen in Forbidden Planet on 1956; Data in Star Trek: The Next Generation from 1987 to 1994; and Pixar’s WALL-E in 2008. [13] [11] Iain Banks’s Culture series of books depicts a utopian, post-scarcity space society of humanoids, aliens, and advanced beings with synthetic intelligence living in socialist habitats across the Milky Way. [14] [15] Researchers at the University of Cambridge have actually determined 4 major themes in utopian scenarios including AI: immortality, or indefinite life expectancies; ease, or freedom from the requirement to work; gratification, or enjoyment and entertainment provided by makers; and supremacy, the power to safeguard oneself or rule over others. [16]
Alexander Wiegel contrasts the function of AI in 2001: A Space Odyssey and in Duncan Jones’s 2009 movie Moon. Whereas in 1968, Wiegel argues, the general public felt “innovation paranoia” and the AI computer HAL was depicted as a “cold-hearted killer”, by 2009 the general public were even more familiar with AI, and the movie’s GERTY is “the peaceful rescuer” who makes it possible for the protagonists to prosper, and who compromises itself for their safety. [17]
Dystopian
The researcher Duncan Lucas writes (in 2002) that humans are stressed over the innovation they are building, and that as makers started to approach intellect and thought, that issue becomes acute. He calls the early 20th century dystopian view of AI in fiction the “animated automaton”, naming as examples the 1931 movie Frankenstein, the 1927 Metropolis, and the 1920 play R.U.R. [18] A later 20th century method he names “heuristic hardware”, offering as instances 2001 a Space Odyssey, Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, and I, Robot. [19] Lucas considers also the movies that illustrate the result of the personal computer on sci-fi from 1980 onwards with the blurring of the boundary between the genuine and the virtual, in what he calls the “cyborg effect”. He cites as examples Neuromancer, The Matrix, The Diamond Age, and Terminator. [20]
The movie director Ridley Scott has actually focused on AI throughout his career, and it plays a vital part in his movies Prometheus, Blade Runner, and the Alien franchise. [21]
Frankenstein complex
A typical representation of AI in science fiction, and one of the oldest, is the Frankenstein complex, a term created by Asimov, where a robot switches on its creator. [22] For circumstances, in the 2015 film Ex Machina, the intelligent entity Ava turns on its developer, as well as on its potential rescuer. [23]
AI rebellion
Among the many possible dystopian situations involving artificial intelligence, robotics might take over control over civilization from humans, requiring them into submission, hiding, or extinction. [15] In tales of AI disobedience, the worst of all situations occurs, as the intelligent entities developed by humanity end up being self-aware, reject human authority and effort to ruin mankind. Possibly the first book to address this style, The Wreck of the World (1889) by “William Grove” (pseudonym of Reginald Colebrooke Reade), happens in 1948 and features sentient makers that revolt versus the mankind. [24] Another of the earliest examples is in the 1920 play R.U.R. by Karel ÄŒapek, a race of self-replicating robot slaves revolt versus their human masters; [25] [26] another early instance is in the 1934 movie Master of the World, where the War-Robot kills its own innovator. [27]
Many science fiction disobedience stories followed, one of the best-known being Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 film 2001: A Space Odyssey, in which the artificially smart onboard computer HAL 9000 lethally breakdowns on a space mission and kills the entire team other than the spaceship’s leader, who handles to deactivate it. [28]
In his 1967 Hugo Award-winning narrative, I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream, Harlan Ellison provides the possibility that a sentient computer system (named Allied Mastercomputer or “AM” in the story) will be as unhappy and discontented with its boring, endless existence as its human creators would have been. “AM” ends up being angered enough to take it out on the couple of humans left, whom he sees as directly responsible for his own boredom, anger and misery. [29]
Alternatively, as in William Gibson’s 1984 cyberpunk unique Neuromancer, the smart beings may just not care about humans. [15]
AI-controlled societies
The intention behind the AI revolution is typically more than the for power or a superiority complex. Robots may revolt to end up being the “guardian” of humankind. Alternatively, humanity might intentionally give up some control, afraid of its own destructive nature. An early example is Jack Williamson’s 1948 novel The Humanoids, in which a race of humanoid robotics, in the name of their Prime Directive – “to serve and obey and safeguard males from damage” – basically assume control of every element of human life. No human beings may engage in any habits that might threaten them, and every human action is scrutinized thoroughly. Humans who resist the Prime Directive are taken away and lobotomized, so they may more than happy under the new mechanoids’ rule. [30] Though still under human authority, Isaac Asimov’s Zeroth Law of the Three Laws of Robotics similarly suggested a good-hearted guidance by robots. [31]
In the 21st century, sci-fi has actually checked out federal government by algorithm, in which the power of AI may be indirect and decentralised. [32]
Human supremacy
In other scenarios, mankind is able to keep control over the Earth, whether by prohibiting AI, by creating robots to be submissive (as in Asimov’s works), or by having humans combine with robotics. The science fiction novelist Frank Herbert explored the concept of a time when humanity may ban synthetic intelligence (and in some interpretations, even all forms of calculating innovation consisting of integrated circuits) totally. His Dune series discusses a rebellion called the Butlerian Jihad, in which humanity beats the wise devices and imposes a death sentence for recreating them, pricing quote from the imaginary Orange Catholic Bible, “Thou shalt not make a device in the likeness of a human mind.” In the Dune books released after his death (Hunters of Dune, Sandworms of Dune), a renegade AI overmind returns to remove humanity as vengeance for the Butlerian Jihad. [33]
In some stories, humanity remains in authority over robotics. Often the robots are set specifically to remain in service to society, as in Isaac Asimov’s Three Laws of Robotics. [31] In the Alien movies, not just is the control system of the Nostromo spaceship somewhat intelligent (the crew call it “Mother”), however there are likewise androids in the society, which are called “synthetics” or “artificial persons”, that are such perfect replicas of humans that they are not victimized. [21] [34] TARS and CASE from Interstellar similarly demonstrate simulated human emotions and humour while continuing to acknowledge their expendability. [35]
Simulated truth
Simulated reality has actually ended up being a typical theme in science fiction, as seen in the 1999 film The Matrix, which depicts a world where artificially intelligent robots shackle humankind within a simulation which is embeded in the contemporary world. [36]
Reception
Implausibility
Engineers and researchers have actually taken an interest in the way AI is presented in fiction. In films like the 2014 Ex Machina or 2015 Chappie, a single isolated genius becomes the first to effectively construct a synthetic basic intelligence; researchers in the real world consider this to be unlikely. In Chappie, Transcendence, and Tron, human minds are capable of being published into artificial or virtual bodies; typically no reasonable explanation is used regarding how this tough task can be achieved. In the I, Robot and Bicentennial Man films, robots that are set to serve human beings spontaneously create new objectives by themselves, without a plausible explanation of how this happened. [37] Analysing Ian McDonald’s 2004 River of Gods, Krzysztof Solarewicz determines the ways that it portrays AIs, including “self-reliance and unexpectedness, political awkwardness, openness to the alien and the occidental worth of authenticity.” [38] Another crucial viewpoint to take is that fiction’s “non-rational components in the discourse (the emotive, the mythic, or perhaps the quasi-theological) are more than simply distortions or interruptions from what may otherwise be a sober and rational public argument about the future of A.I.” Fiction can discourage readers about future advances, triggering pessimism that we see today surrounding the topic of AI. [39]
Kinds of reference
The robotics researcher Omar Mubin and colleagues have analysed the engineering mentions of the leading 21 fictional robotics, based on those in the Carnegie Mellon University hall of fame, and the IMDb list. WALL-E had 20 points out, followed by HAL 9000 with 15, [a] Star Wars’s R2-D2 with 13, and Data with 12; the Terminator (T-800) got just 2. Of the total of 121 engineering mentions, 60 were utopian, 40 neutral, and 21 dystopian. HAL 9000 and Skynet received both utopian and dystopian points out; for instance, HAL 9000 is seen as dystopian in one paper “since its designers failed to prioritize its objectives correctly”, [42] but as utopian in another where a genuine system’s “conversational chat bot interface [does not have] a HAL 9000 level of intelligence and there is uncertainty in how the computer system translates what the human is trying to convey”. [43] Utopian discusses, frequently of WALL-E, were connected with the objective of enhancing interaction to readers, and to a lesser extent with inspiration to authors. WALL-E was mentioned more frequently than any other robot for feelings (followed by HAL 9000), voice speech (followed by HAL 9000 and R2-D2), for physical gestures, and for character. Skynet was the robotic most typically discussed for intelligence, followed by HAL 9000 and Data. [40] Mubin and coworkers thought that scientists and engineers prevented dystopian discusses of robotics, potentially out of “a hesitation driven by uneasiness or simply a lack of awareness”. [44]
Portrayals of AI developers
Scholars have actually noted that imaginary developers of AI are extremely male: in the 142 most prominent movies including AI from 1920 to 2020, only 9 of 116 AI developers portrayed (8%) were female. [45] Such developers are portrayed as only geniuses (eg, Tony Stark in the Iron Man Marvel Cinematic Universe films), connected with the military (eg, Colossus: The Forbin Project) and big corporations (eg, I, Robot), or making human-like AI to replace a lost liked one or work as the perfect fan (e.g., The Stepford Wives). [45]
Biology in fiction
Darwin among the Machines
Machine rule
Simulated consciousness (sci-fi).
List of expert system movies.
Notes
^ Mubin and associates kept in mind that the orthography of robot names triggered them problems; therefore HAL 9000 was likewise written HAL, HAL9000, and HAL-9000, and similarly for other robots, so they believed their search was most likely incomplete. [41] References
^ “Darwin amongst the Machines”, reprinted in the Notebooks of Samuel Butler at Project Gutenberg.
^ a b c Taylor, Tim; Dorin, Alan (2020 ). Rise of the Self-Replicators: Early Visions of Machines, AI and Robots That Can Reproduce and Evolve. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-030-48234-3. ISBN 978-3-030-48233-6. S2CID 220855726. “Rise of the Self-Replicators”. Tim Taylor.
^ “Darwin amongst the Machines”. Journalism, Christchurch, New Zealand. 13 June 1863.
^ Aldiss, Brian Wilson (1995 ). The Detached Retina: Aspects of SF and Fantasy. Syracuse University Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-8156-0370-2.
^ McCorduck, Pamela (2004 ). Machines Who Think (second ed.). Routledge. pp. 4-5. ISBN 978-1-56881-205-2.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (25 July 2018). “Ancient imagine intelligent machines: 3,000 years of robots”. Nature. 559 (7715 ): 473-475. Bibcode:2018 Natur.559..473 C. doi:10.1038/ d41586-018-05773-y.
^ Mayor, Adrienne (2018 ). Gods and robots: myths, makers, and ancient dreams of technology. Princeton. ISBN 978-0-691-18351-0. OCLC 1060968156. mention book: CS1 maint: area missing out on publisher (link).
^ Poole, David; Mackworth, Alan; Goebel, Randy (1998 ). Computational Intelligence: A Sensible Approach. Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-19-510270-3.
^ Booker, M. Keith (1994 ). “Chapter 1: Utopia, Dystopia, and Social Critique”. The Dystopian Impulse in Modern Literature: Fiction as Social Criticism. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. 17, 19. ISBN 978-0-313-29092-3.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (2020 ). “Introduction: Imagining AI“. In Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (eds.). AI Narratives: A History of Imaginative Considering Intelligent Machines. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 10-11. ISBN 978-0-1988-4666-6.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:2.
^ Tegmark, Max (2017 ). Life 3.0: being human in the age of synthetic intelligence. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-1-101-94659-6. OCLC 973137375.
^ Goode 2018, p. 188.
^ Banks, Iain M. “A Couple Of Notes on the Culture”. Archived from the original on 22 March 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
^ a b c Walter, Damien (16 March 2016). “When AI rules the world: what SF books inform us about our future overlords”. The Guardian. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (2019 ). “Hopes and worries for smart makers in fiction and truth”. Nature Machine Intelligence. 1 (2 ): 74-78. doi:10.1038/ s42256-019-0020-9. S2CID 150700981.
^ Wiegel 2012.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 22-47.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 48-85.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 109-152.
^ a b Barkman, Adam (2013 ). Barkman, Ashley; Kang, Nancy (eds.). The Culture and Philosophy of Ridley Scott. Lexington Books. pp. 121-142. ISBN 978-0739178720.
^ Olander, Joseph (1978 ). Science fiction: modern folklore: the SFWA-SFRA. Harper & Row. p. 252. ISBN 0-06-046943-9.
^ Seth, Anil (24 January 2015). “Consciousness Awakening”. New Scientist.
^ “Grove, William”. SF Encyclopedia. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
^ Goode 2018, p. 187.
^ Tim Madigan (July-August 2012). “RUR or RU Ain’t A Person?”. Philosophy Now. Archived from the initial on 3 February 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
^ “Der Herr der Welt (Master of the World)”. The New York City Times. 16 December 1935. p. 23.
^ Overbye, Dennis (10 May 2018). “‘ 2001: An Area Odyssey’ Is Still the ‘Ultimate Trip’ – The rerelease of Stanley Kubrick’s masterpiece motivates us to show once again on where we’re originating from and where we’re going”. The New York Times.
^ Francavilla, Joseph (1994 ). “The Concept of the Divided Self in Harlan Ellison’s “I Have No Mouth and I Must Scream” and “Shatterday””. Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts. 6 (2/3 (22/23)): 107-125. JSTOR 43308212.
^ “The Humanoids (based on ‘With Folded Hands’)”. Kirkus Reviews. 15 November 1995. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ a b Asimov, Isaac (1950 ). “Runaround”. I, Robot (The Isaac Asimov Collection ed.). Doubleday. p. 40. ISBN 0-385-42304-7. This is a specific transcription of the laws. They likewise appear in the front of the book, and in both locations, there is no “to” in the 2nd law.
^ Walton, Jo Lindsay (1 February 2024). “Machine Learning in Contemporary Sci-fi”. SFRA Review. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
^ Lorenzo, DiTommaso (November 1992). “History and Historical Effect in Frank Herbert’s Dune”. Sci-fi Studies. 19 (3 ): 311-325. JSTOR 4240179.
^ Livingstone, Josephine (23 May 2017). “How the Androids Took Control Of the Alien Franchise”. The New Republic. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Murphy, Shaunna (11 December 2014). “Could TARS From ‘Interstellar’ Actually Exist? We Asked Science”. MTV News. Archived from the original on 16 November 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Allen, Jamie (28 November 2012). “The Matrix and Postmodernism”. Prezi.com. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
^ Shultz, David (17 July 2015). “Which motion pictures get artificial intelligence right?”. Science|AAAS. doi:10.1126/ science.aac8859. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
^ Solarewicz 2015.
^ Goode 2018.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:15.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:20.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:8.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:10.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:19.
^ a b Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Drage, Eleanor; McInerney, Kerry (13 February 2023). “Who makes AI? Gender and portrayals of AI researchers in popular movie, 1920-2020″. Public Understanding of Science. 32 (6 ): 745-760. doi:10.1177/ 09636625231153985. PMC 10413781. PMID 36779283. S2CID 256826634.
General sources
Goode, Luke (30 October 2018). “Life, however not as we understand it: A.I. and the popular creativity”. Culture Unbound. 10 (2 ). Linkoping University Electronic Press: 185-207. doi:10.3384/ cu.2000.1525.2018102185. hdl:2292/ 48285. ISSN 2000-1525. S2CID 149523987.
Lucas, Duncan (2002 ). Body, Mind, Soul-The’ Cyborg Effect’: Artificial Intelligence in Sci-fi (thesis). McMaster University (PhD thesis). hdl:11375/ 11154.
Mubin, Omar; Wadibhasme, Kewal; Jordan, Philipp; Obaid, Mohammad (2019 ). “Reflecting on the Presence of Sci-fi Robots in Computing Literature”. ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction. 8 (1 ). Article 5. doi:10.1145/ 3303706. S2CID 75135568.
Solarewicz, Krzysztof (2015 ). “The Stuff That Dreams Are Made of: AI in Contemporary Sci-fi”. Beyond Expert system. Topics in Intelligent Engineering and Informatics. Vol. 9. Springer International Publishing. pp. 111-120. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-319-09668-1_8. ISBN 978-3-319-09667-4.
Wiegel, Alexander (2012 ). “AI in Science-fiction: a comparison of Moon (2009) and 2001: An Area Odyssey (1968 )”. Aventinus.
King, Geoff; Krzywinska, Tanya (2000 ). Sci-fi Cinema: From Outerspace to Cyberspace. Wallflower Press. ISBN 978-1-903364-03-1.
External links
AI and Sci-Fi: My, Oh, My!: Keynote Address by Robert J. Sawyer 2002
AI and Cinema – Does artificial madness rule?